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the law of averages

  • 1 by the law of averages

    English-Dutch dictionary > by the law of averages

  • 2 law

    law [lɔ:]
    1. noun
       a. ( = legislation) loi f
       b. ( = operation of the law) justice f
       c. ( = system, profession) droit m
    • civil/criminal law le droit civil/pénal
    • to practise law [solicitor] être notaire ; [barrister] être avocat (e)
       d. ( = regulation) loi f
    • there should be a law against it! ça devrait être interdit !
    • there's no law against it! ce n'est pas défendu !
       e. ( = principle) loi f
    ► Law Courts plural noun ≈ Palais m de justice
    * * *
    [lɔː]
    1) [U] ( body of rules) loi f

    court of law — cour f de justice

    2) Law ( rule) loi f
    4) (colloq) ( police) police f
    5) ( academic subject) droit m
    ••

    to lay down the law — dicter or imposer sa loi

    English-French dictionary > law

  • 3 law

    n. wet; recht; rechtspraak; rechten; wetgeving; algemeenheid; gewoonte
    --------
    v. procederen; achtervolgen; een proces aangaan
    [ lo:]
    5 〈 vaak the〉 recht(sgang) ⇒ justitie, gerecht
    6  (gedrags)code ⇒ (spel)regel, norm; 〈 in het bijzonder〉 beroeps/sport/kunstcode
    7  wet ⇒ wetmatigheid, natuurwet
    8 〈werkwoord enkelvoud of meervoud; the; informeel〉 politie ⇒ sterke arm
    ♦voorbeelden:
    1   〈 juridisch〉 law of nations • volkenrecht
         law and order • orde en gezag, recht en orde
         be a law unto oneself • zijn eigen wetten stellen, eigenmachtig optreden
    2   in the name of the law • in naam der wet
    5   go to law • naar de rechter stappen, een proces aanspannen
    6   law of honour • erecode
    7   〈 natuurkunde〉 laws of motion • bewegingswetten
         law of averages • wetten van de kansrekening/waarschijnlijkheidsrekening
         by the law of averages • naar alle waarschijnlijkheid
         〈 economie〉 law of diminishing returns • wet van de afnemende meeropbrengst
    law of Moses • Mozaïsche wet, tien geboden
         take the law into one's own hands • het recht in eigen hand nemen
         law of the jungle • recht van de sterkste
         lay down the law • de wet voorschrijven; snauwen, blaffen
    → long long/, right right/, unwritten unwritten/

    English-Dutch dictionary > law

  • 4 law

    lo:
    1) (the collection of rules according to which people live or a country etc is governed: Such an action is against the law; law and order.) ley
    2) (any one of such rules: A new law has been passed by Parliament.) ley
    3) ((in science) a rule that says that under certain conditions certain things always happen: the law of gravity.) ley
    •
    - lawfully
    - lawless
    - lawlessly
    - lawlessness
    - lawyer
    - law-abiding
    - law court
    - lawsuit
    - be a law unto oneself
    - the law
    - the law of the land
    - lay down the law
    law n
    1. ley
    it is against the law es ilegal / va en contra de la ley
    2. derecho
    tr[lɔː]
    2 SMALLEDUCATION/SMALL derecho
    1 familiar la poli nombre femenino, la pasma
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    against the law contra la ley
    by law por ley
    in law por ley
    laws are made to be broken hecha la ley, hecha la trampa
    the law of the jungle la ley del más fuerte
    to be a law unto oneself dictar sus propias leyes
    to be outside the law estar fuera de la ley
    to go to law recurrir a la ley
    to keep within the law obrar según la ley
    to take the law into one's own hands tomarse la justicia por su mano
    law court tribunal nombre masculino de justicia
    law firm bufete nombre masculino de abogados
    law school SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL facultad nombre femenino de derecho
    law ['lɔ] n
    1) : ley f
    to break the law: violar la ley
    2) : derecho m
    criminal law: derecho criminal
    3) : abogacía f
    to practice law: ejercer la abogacía
    n.
    • derecho s.m.
    • fuero s.m.
    • jurisprudencia s.f.
    • ley s.f.
    • regla s.f.
    lɔː
    1)
    a) c (rule, regulation) ley f

    he's/she's a law unto himself/herself — hace lo que le da la gana

    b) u ( collectively)

    to break the law — violar or contravenir* or infringir* la ley

    it is against the law — es ilegal or está prohibido por (la) ley

    to stay within the law — actuar* dentro de la ley

    under French law — según la ley or la legislación francesa

    to lay down the law — dar* órdenes

    to take the law into one's own hands — tomarse la justicia por su (or mi etc) propia mano

    c) u (as field, discipline) derecho m; ( profession) abogacía f

    to enter the law — (BrE) hacerse* abogado; (before n)

    law school — facultad f de Derecho

    2) u

    to go to law — (BrE) recurrir a los tribunales or a la justicia

    b)

    the law — ( police) (colloq) la policía

    3) c u ( code of conduct)

    Islamic law — ( Relig) la ley del Corán

    4) c ( scientific principle) ley f
    [lɔː]
    1. N
    1) (=piece of legislation) ley f

    • there's no law against it — no hay ley que lo prohíba

    - be a law unto o.s.
    pass 2., 9)
    2) (=system of laws)

    • to be above the law — estar por encima de la ley

    • according to or in accordance with the law — según la ley, de acuerdo con la ley

    • the bill became law on 6 August — el proyecto de ley se hizo ley el 6 de agosto

    • by law — por ley, de acuerdo con la ley

    • civil/ criminal law — derecho m civil/penal

    • in law — según la ley

    • the law of the land — la ley vigente

    • officer of the law — agente mf de la ley

    • the law on abortion — la legislación sobre el aborto

    • law and order — el orden público

    • he is outside the law — está fuera de la ley

    • to have the law on one's side — tener la justicia de su lado

    • to keep or remain within the law — obrar legalmente

    • his word is law — su palabra es ley

    - lay down the law
    - take the law into one's own hands
    3) (=field of study) derecho m

    • to study law — estudiar derecho

    4) (=profession) abogacía f

    • she is considering a career in law — está pensando dedicarse a la abogacía

    • to practise law — ejercer de abogado, ejercer la abogacía

    5) (=legal proceedings)

    • court of law — tribunal m de justicia

    • to go to law — recurrir a la justicia or a los tribunales

    • to take a case to law — llevar un caso ante los tribunales

    6) (=rule) [of organization, sport] regla f

    • God's law — la ley de Dios

    7) (=standard) norma f
    8) (Sci, Math) ley f

    • by the law of averages — por la estadística, estadísticamente

    • the law of gravity — la ley de la gravedad

    nature 1., 4)
    9) * (=police)

    to have the law on sb — denunciar a algn a la policía, llevar a algn a los tribunales

    2.
    CPD

    law court N — tribunal m de justicia

    law enforcement N — aplicación f de la ley

    law enforcement agency N — organismo encargado de velar por el cumplimiento de la ley

    law enforcement officer N — (esp US) policía mf

    Law Faculty N — (Univ) facultad f de Derecho

    law firm N — gabinete m jurídico, bufete m de abogados

    Law Lord NPL — (Brit) (Pol) juez mf lor

    the Law Lords — jueces que son miembros de la Cámara de los Lores y constituyen el Tribunal Supremo

    law reports NPL — repertorio m de jurisprudencia

    law school N — (US) facultad f de derecho

    law student N — estudiante mf de derecho

    * * *
    [lɔː]
    1)
    a) c (rule, regulation) ley f

    he's/she's a law unto himself/herself — hace lo que le da la gana

    b) u ( collectively)

    to break the law — violar or contravenir* or infringir* la ley

    it is against the law — es ilegal or está prohibido por (la) ley

    to stay within the law — actuar* dentro de la ley

    under French law — según la ley or la legislación francesa

    to lay down the law — dar* órdenes

    to take the law into one's own hands — tomarse la justicia por su (or mi etc) propia mano

    c) u (as field, discipline) derecho m; ( profession) abogacía f

    to enter the law — (BrE) hacerse* abogado; (before n)

    law school — facultad f de Derecho

    2) u

    to go to law — (BrE) recurrir a los tribunales or a la justicia

    b)

    the law — ( police) (colloq) la policía

    3) c u ( code of conduct)

    Islamic law — ( Relig) la ley del Corán

    4) c ( scientific principle) ley f

    English-spanish dictionary > law

  • 5 law

    noun
    1) no pl. (body of established rules) Gesetz, das; Recht, das

    the law forbids/allows something to be done — nach dem Gesetz ist es verboten/erlaubt, etwas zu tun

    according to/under British etc. law — nach britischem usw. Recht

    under the or by or in law — nach dem Gesetz

    be/become law — vorgeschrieben sein/werden

    lay down the law on/about something — sich zum Experten für etwas aufschwingen

    law enforcement — Durchführung der Gesetze/des Gesetzes

    2) no pl., no indef. art. (control through law) Gesetz, das
    3) (statute) Gesetz, das

    there ought to be a law against it/people like you — so etwas sollte/Leute wie du sollten verboten werden

    be a law unto oneself — machen, was man will

    4) no pl., no indef. art. (litigation) Rechtswesen, das; Gerichtswesen, das

    go to law [over something] — [wegen etwas] vor Gericht gehen; [wegen etwas] den Rechtsweg beschreiten

    have the law on somebody — (coll.) jemandem die Polizei auf den Hals schicken (ugs.); jemanden vor den Kadi schleppen (ugs.)

    take the law into one's own hands — sich (Dat.) selbst Recht verschaffen

    5) no pl., no indef. art. (profession)

    practise law — Jurist/Juristin sein

    6) no pl., no art. (Univ.): (jurisprudence) Jura o. Art.; Rechtswissenschaft, die; attrib. Rechts-

    law school — (Amer.) juristische Fakultät

    7) no indef. art. (branch of law)

    commercial law — Handelsrecht, das

    8) (Sci., Philos., etc.) Gesetz, das

    law of nature, natural law — Naturgesetz, das

    * * *
    [lo:]
    1) (the collection of rules according to which people live or a country etc is governed: Such an action is against the law; law and order.) das Recht
    2) (any one of such rules: A new law has been passed by Parliament.) das Gesetz
    3) ((in science) a rule that says that under certain conditions certain things always happen: the law of gravity.) das Gesetz
    •
    - academic.ru/42012/lawful">lawful
    - lawfully
    - lawless
    - lawlessly
    - lawlessness
    - lawyer
    - law-abiding
    - law court
    - lawsuit
    - be a law unto oneself
    - the law
    - the law of the land
    - lay down the law
    * * *
    [lɔ:, AM esp lɑ:]
    n
    1. (rule) Gesetz nt
    many doctors want to see a \law banning all tobacco advertising viele Ärzte fordern ein Verbot jeglicher Tabakwerbung
    the \laws governing the importation of animals... die Gesetze zur Einführung von Tieren...
    his word is \law sein Wort ist Gesetz
    there is a \law against driving on the wrong side of the road es ist verboten, auf der falschen Straßenseite zu fahren
    the first \law of politics is... das oberste Gesetz in der Politik lautet...
    \law of taxation Steuerrecht nt
    2. no pl (legal system) Recht nt
    to take the \law into one's own hands Selbstjustiz betreiben
    \law and order Recht und Ordnung, Law and Order fam
    to be against the \law illegal [o gegen das Gesetz] sein
    to be above the \law über dem Gesetz stehen
    to break/obey the \law das Gesetz brechen/befolgen
    to remain within the \law sich akk im Rahmen des Gesetzes bewegen
    3. no pl (police)
    ▪ the \law die Polizei
    to get the \law on sb ( fam) jdm die Polizei auf den Hals hetzen fam
    4. (scientific principle) [Natur]gesetz nt
    \law of averages Gesetz nt der Serie
    \law of chance SCI Zufallsgesetz nt
    \law of conservation of energy PHYS Energie[erhaltungs]satz m
    \law of conservation of matter CHEM, PHYS Massenerhaltungssatz m
    \law of constant heat summation PHYS Gesetz nt der konstanten Wärmesummen
    \law of constant [or definite] proportions CHEM Gesetz nt der konstanten Proportionen
    \law of error propagation MATH Fehlerfortpflanzungsgesetz nt
    the \law of supply and demand das Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage
    5. no pl (at university) Jura kein art, Jus nt ÖSTERR, SCHWEIZ
    to study \law Jura [o ÖSTERR, SCHWEIZ Jus] studieren
    6.
    ▶ to go to \law vor Gericht gehen
    ▶ the \law of the jungle das Gesetz des Stärkeren
    ▶ there's one \law for the rich and another for the poor ( saying) wer Geld hat, [der] hat auch das Gesetz auf seiner Seite
    ▶ sb is a \law unto oneself jd lebt nach seinen eigenen Gesetzen
    * * *
    [lɔː]
    n
    1) (= rule ALSO JEWISH, SCI) Gesetz nt

    there is no law against asking, is there? (inf) — man darf doch wohl noch fragen, oder?

    he is a law unto himself — er macht, was er will

    2) (= body of laws) Gesetz nt no pl; (= system) Recht nt

    by law all restaurants must display their prices outside — alle Restaurants sind gesetzlich dazu verpflichtet, ihre Preise draußen auszuhängen

    he is above/outside the law — er steht über dem Gesetz/außerhalb des Gesetzes

    to keep within the law — sich im Rahmen des Gesetzes bewegen

    a change in the law —

    civil/criminal law — Zivil-/Strafrecht nt

    3) (as study) Jura no art, Recht(swissenschaft f) nt
    4) (SPORT) Regel f; (ART) Gesetz nt
    5)

    (= operation of law) law — eine Anwaltspraxis haben

    to go to law — vor Gericht gehen, den Rechtsweg beschreiten

    to take sb to law — gegen jdn gerichtlich vorgehen, jdn vor Gericht bringen

    to take a case to law — in einer Sache gerichtlich vorgehen, einen Fall vor Gericht bringen

    law and order — Ruhe or Recht und Ordnung, Law and Order

    6)

    the law (inf) — die Polente (dated inf), die Bullen (sl)

    I'll get the law on you ( Brit inf ) — ich hole die Polizei

    * * *
    law1 [lɔː] s
    1. (objektives) Recht, Gesetz n, Gesetze pl:
    according to law, by law, in law, under the law nach dem Gesetz, von Rechts wegen, gesetzlich;
    contrary to law, against the law gesetz-, rechtswidrig;
    under German law nach deutschem Recht;
    law and order Recht oder Ruhe und Ordnung;
    act within the law sich im Rahmen des Gesetzes bewegen, gesetzmäßig handeln;
    take the law into one’s own hands sich selbst Recht verschaffen, zur Selbsthilfe greifen; → come up 6, domestic A 1, inheritance 1 b, jungle, property 1, succession 4 d
    2. (einzelnes) Gesetz:
    the bill has become ( oder passed into) law die Gesetzesvorlage ist (zum) Gesetz geworden
    3. → common law
    4. Recht n:
    a) Rechtssystem n:
    b) (einzelnes) Rechtsgebiet:
    law of nations Völkerrecht, internationales Recht; → commercial law, international A 1
    5. Rechtswissenschaft f, Jura pl:
    comparative law vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft;
    read ( oder study, take) law Jura studieren;
    learned in the law rechtsgelehrt;
    Doctor of Laws Doktor m der Rechte; → practice C 2
    6. Juristenberuf m, juristische Laufbahn:
    be in the law Jurist(in) sein
    7. Rechtskenntnisse pl:
    8. Gericht n, Rechtsweg m:
    at law vor Gericht, gerichtlich;
    go to law vor Gericht gehen, den Rechtsweg beschreiten, prozessieren;
    go to law with sb, have ( oder take) the law of ( oder on) sb jemanden verklagen oder belangen
    9. umg
    a) Bullen pl pej (Polizei)
    b) Bulle m pej (Polizist)
    10. allg Gesetz n, Vorschrift f, Gebot n, Befehl m:
    be a law (un)to o.s. sich über jegliche Konvention hinwegsetzen; tun, was einem passt;
    lay down the law sich als Autorität aufspielen ( to sb jemandem gegenüber);
    lay down the law to sb jemandem Vorschriften machen
    11. a) Gesetz n, Grundsatz m, Prinzip n:
    the laws of probability ( oder averages) die Gesetze der Wahrscheinlichkeit
    b) (Spiel)Regel f:
    the laws of the game die Spielregeln
    12. a) auch law of nature Naturgesetz n
    b) (wissenschaftliches) Gesetz: → causality 1, inertia 1, proportion A 4
    c) (Lehr)Satz m:
    law of sines MATH Sinussatz;
    law of thermodynamics PHYS Hauptsatz der Thermodynamik
    13. Gesetzmäßigkeit f, Ordnung f (in der Natur):
    not chance, but law nicht Zufall, sondern Gesetzmäßigkeit
    14. REL
    a) (göttliches) Gesetz oder Gebot
    b) oft Law koll (göttliches) Gesetz, Gebote pl Gottes
    15. REL
    a) the Law (of Moses) das Gesetz (des Moses), der Pentateuch
    b) das Alte Testament
    law2 [lɔː] int umg obs herrje!
    L., l. abk
    1. lake
    2. law
    4. left li.
    5. line
    * * *
    noun
    1) no pl. (body of established rules) Gesetz, das; Recht, das

    the law forbids/allows something to be done — nach dem Gesetz ist es verboten/erlaubt, etwas zu tun

    according to/under British etc. law — nach britischem usw. Recht

    under the or by or in law — nach dem Gesetz

    be/become law — vorgeschrieben sein/werden

    lay down the law on/about something — sich zum Experten für etwas aufschwingen

    law enforcement — Durchführung der Gesetze/des Gesetzes

    2) no pl., no indef. art. (control through law) Gesetz, das
    3) (statute) Gesetz, das

    there ought to be a law against it/people like you — so etwas sollte/Leute wie du sollten verboten werden

    be a law unto oneself — machen, was man will

    4) no pl., no indef. art. (litigation) Rechtswesen, das; Gerichtswesen, das

    go to law [over something] — [wegen etwas] vor Gericht gehen; [wegen etwas] den Rechtsweg beschreiten

    have the law on somebody — (coll.) jemandem die Polizei auf den Hals schicken (ugs.); jemanden vor den Kadi schleppen (ugs.)

    take the law into one's own hands — sich (Dat.) selbst Recht verschaffen

    5) no pl., no indef. art. (profession)

    practise law — Jurist/Juristin sein

    6) no pl., no art. (Univ.): (jurisprudence) Jura o. Art.; Rechtswissenschaft, die; attrib. Rechts-

    law school — (Amer.) juristische Fakultät

    7) no indef. art. (branch of law)

    commercial law — Handelsrecht, das

    8) (Sci., Philos., etc.) Gesetz, das

    law of nature, natural law — Naturgesetz, das

    * * *
    n.
    Gesetz -e n.
    Recht -e n.
    Rechtswissenschaft f.
    Vorgabe -n (Jagd, Sport) f.

    English-german dictionary > law

  • 6 law

    [lo:]
    1) (the collection of rules according to which people live or a country etc is governed: Such an action is against the law; law and order.) lei
    2) (any one of such rules: A new law has been passed by Parliament.) lei
    3) ((in science) a rule that says that under certain conditions certain things always happen: the law of gravity.) lei
    •
    - lawfully
    - lawless
    - lawlessly
    - lawlessness
    - lawyer
    - law-abiding
    - law court
    - lawsuit
    - be a law unto oneself
    - the law
    - the law of the land
    - lay down the law
    * * *
    [lɔ:] n 1 lei. 2 direito. 3 regulamento. 4 regra, código. 5 estatuto. 6 mandamentos. 7 jurisprudência. 8 advocacia. 9 foro, tribunal. 10 coll policial, polícia. • vi coll demandar, processar. at law em juízo. blue laws leis puritanas. brother-in-law cunhado. by law por lei. canon law direito canônico. civil law direito civil. commercial law direito comercial. common law direito consuetudinário. daughter-in-law nora. ecclesiastical law direito eclesiástico. father-in-law sogro. in-laws coll os parentes por afinidade. I like my in-laws / gosto dos parentes de minha mulher (ou de meu marido). international law direito internacional. law of averages Stat lei da média dos principais promédios. law of gravity Phys lei da gravidade. law of motion Phys lei dos movimentos. law of supply and demand Com lei da oferta e da procura. law of the jungle lei da selva. marine law direito marítimo. martial law lei marcial. military law lei militar. mother-in-law sogra. sister-in-law cunhada. son-in-law genro. the Law n a) a Lei de Deus, promulgada por Moisés. b) o Antigo Testamento. to be a law into oneself fazer o que se quer, sem ligar para as leis. to be at law estar em demanda. to be enforced by law ser garantido por lei. to be in the law ser jurista. to go to law processar. to have the law on processar. to lay down the law dar ordens. to take the law into one’s hands fazer justiça pelas próprias mãos. zoning law lei de zoneamento.

    English-Portuguese dictionary > law

  • 7 law

    [lɔ:, Am esp lɑ:] n
    1) ( rule) Gesetz nt;
    many doctors want to see a \law banning all tobacco advertising viele Ärzte fordern ein Verbot jeglicher Tabakwerbung;
    the \laws governing the importation of animals... die Gesetze zur Einführung von Tieren...;
    his word is \law sein Wort ist Gesetz;
    there is a \law against driving on the wrong side of the road es ist verboten, auf der falschen Straßenseite zu fahren;
    the first \law of politics is... das oberste Gesetz in der Politik lautet...
    2) no pl ( legal system) Recht nt;
    to take the \law into one's own hands Selbstjustiz betreiben;
    \law and order Recht und Ordnung, Law and Order ( fam)
    to be against the \law illegal [o gegen das Gesetz] sein;
    to be above the \law über dem Gesetz stehen;
    to break/obey the \law das Gesetz brechen/befolgen;
    to remain within the \law sich akk im Rahmen des Gesetzes bewegen
    the \law die Polizei;
    to get the \law on sb ( fam) jdm die Polizei auf den Hals hetzen ( fam)
    4) ( scientific principle) [Natur]gesetz nt;
    \law of averages Gesetz nt der Serie;
    the \law of supply and demand das Gesetz von Angebot und Nachfrage
    5) no pl ( at university) Jura kein art, Jus nt;
    to study \law Jura studieren
    PHRASES:
    the \law of the jungle das Gesetz des Stärkeren;
    there's one \law for the rich and another for the poor ( and another for the poor) wer Geld hat, [der] hat auch das Gesetz auf seiner Seite;
    to go to \law vor Gericht gehen;
    sb is a \law unto oneself jd lebt nach seinen eigenen Gesetzen

    English-German students dictionary > law

  • 8 law

    •

    under the law — по закону, согласно закону, в соответствии с законом

    - converse law of double negation - distributive law of disjunction over conjunction - double law of the mean - fifth power law - first distributive law - first law of mean - idempotency law - infinitely decomposable law - infinitely divisible law - inverse sine law - inverse square law - law of addition of probability - law of alteration of quantifiers - law of associativity of disjunction - law of comparative judgment - law of constant angles - law of double complementation - law of equal significance - law of mass action - law of random function - law of random vector - law of requisite variety - law of right invertibility - law of statistical regularity - law of universal causation - law of universal gravitation - Newton's first law of motion - Newton's law of gravitation - Newton's second law of motion - Newton's third law of motion - normal law of composition - normal law of errors - one-sided modular law - probabilistic law - probability law - product law of probability - quadratic reciprocity law - second law of mean - second order law - similitude law

    English-Russian scientific dictionary > law

  • 9 law

    1) зако́н м

    have a force of law — име́ть си́лу зако́на

    inside/within the law (in law) — зако́нно, по зако́ну

    against/outside the law — про́тив зако́на

    break the law — нару́шить зако́н

    2) юр пра́во с

    school of law — юриди́ческий факульте́т (юриди́ческая магистрату́ра)

    customary (international) law — обы́чное (междунаро́дное) пра́во

    3) зако́н м (приро́ды), закономе́рность ж

    the law of gravity — зако́н тяготе́ния

    - law of averages
    - law of diminishing returns
    - be a law unto oneself

    The Americanisms. English-Russian dictionary. > law

  • 10 law

    1) закон; правило
    •
    - law of averages - law of conservation of energy - law of continuity - law of convection - law of dynamics - law of equilibrium - law of reciprocal proportions - law of similarity - law of the mean - law of virtual velocities - Adam's law - administrative law - antipollution law - building law - cosine law - Darcy's law - fan law - health and safety law - Hook's law - housing law - linear law - parabolic law - plasticity law - quarantine laws - riparian law - stress-strain law - water-cement ratio strength law - water laws - zoning law
    * * *
    закон; правило; теорема; уравнение, формула, зависимость
    - law of action and reaction
    - law of areas
    - law of compatibility
    - law of conservation of energy
    - law of dynamics
    - law of elasticity
    - law of equilibrium
    - law of minimum potential energy
    - law of proportionality
    - law of similarity
    - law of statics
    - law of superposition
    - law of virtual displacements
    - law of virtual work
    - Abrams' law
    - conservation law
    - constitutive law
    - Darcy's law
    - fan law
    - health and safety law
    - Hooke's law
    - Maxwell's law of reciprocity
    - parallelogram law
    - plasticity law
    - proportionality law
    - stress-strain law
    - superposition law
    - virtual displacement law
    - virtual work law
    - zoning law

    Англо-русский строительный словарь > law

  • 11 average

    1. noun
    1) Durchschnitt, der

    on [the or an] average — im Durchschnitt; durchschnittlich; im Schnitt (ugs.)

    above/below average — über/unter dem Durchschnitt

    law of averages — Wahrscheinlichkeitsgesetz, das

    2) (arithmetic mean) Mittelwert, der
    2. adjective

    he is of average height — er ist mittelgroß

    2) (mediocre) durchschnittlich; mittelmäßig
    3. transitive verb
    1) (find the average of) den Durchschnitt ermitteln von
    2) (amount on average to) durchschnittlich betragen

    the planks averaged three metres in length — die Bretter waren durchschnittlich drei Meter lang

    3) (do on average) einen Durchschnitt von... erreichen

    the train averaged 90 m.p.h. — der Zug fuhr im Durchschnitt mit 144 Kilometern pro Stunde

    4. intransitive verb
    * * *
    ['ævəri‹] 1. noun
    (the result of adding several amounts together and dividing the total by the number of amounts: The average of 3, 7, 9 and 13 is 8 (= 32:4).) der Durchschnitt
    2. adjective
    1) (obtained by finding the average of amounts etc: average price; the average temperature for the week.) durchschnittlich
    2) (ordinary; not exceptional: The average person is not wealthy; His work is average.) Durchschnitts-...
    3. verb
    (to form an average: His expenses averaged (out at) 15 dollars a day.) durchschnittlich betragen
    * * *
    <- rr->
    [əˈvɜ:ʳ, AM -ˈvɜ:r]
    vt
    ▪ to \average sth
    1. ( form: assert) etw beteuern
    2. LAW (claim) etw behauptenav·er·age
    [ˈævərɪʤ]
    I. n
    1. (mean value) Durchschnitt m
    to have risen by an \average of 4% durchschnittlich um 4 % gestiegen sein
    on \average im Durchschnitt
    2. no pl (usual standard) Durchschnitt m
    to be about the \average dem Durchschnitt entsprechen
    [to be] [well] above/below \average [weit] über/unter dem Durchschnitt [liegen]
    3. MATH Durchschnitt m, Mittelwert m
    law of \averages Gesetz nt der Durchschnittsbildung
    4. (in marine insurance) Havarie f
    II. adj inv
    1. (arithmetic) durchschnittlich; income, age Durchschnitts-
    sb on an \average income jd mit einem Durchschnittseinkommen
    \average rainfall durchschnittliche Niederschlagsmenge
    2. (typical) durchschnittlich, Durchschnitts-
    of \average ability mit durchschnittlichen Fähigkeiten
    the \average man der Durchschnittsbürger
    \average person Otto Normalverbraucher
    above/below \average über-/unterdurchschnittlich
    III. vt
    1. (have in general)
    ▪ to \average sth im Durchschnitt [o durchschnittlich] etw betragen
    to \average 70 hours a week durchschnittlich 70 Stunden pro Woche arbeiten
    to \average £12,000 per year durchschnittlich 12.000 Pfund im Jahr verdienen
    ▪ to \average sth von etw dat den Durchschnitt ermitteln
    * * *
    ['vərɪdZ]
    1. n
    (Durch)schnitt m; (MATH ALSO) Mittelwert m

    to do an average of 50 miles a day/3% a week — durchschnittlich or im (Durch)schnitt 50 Meilen pro Tag fahren/3% pro Woche erledigen

    what's your average over the last six months? — was haben Sie im letzten halben Jahr durchschnittlich geleistet/verdient etc?

    on average — durchschnittlich, im (Durch)schnitt

    if you take the average (Math) — wenn Sie den (Durch)schnitt or Mittelwert nehmen; (general) wenn Sie den durchschnittlichen Fall nehmen

    above average — überdurchschnittlich, über dem Durchschnitt

    below average — unterdurchschnittlich, unter dem Durchschnitt

    2. adj
    durchschnittlich; (= ordinary) Durchschnitts-; (= not good or bad) mittelmäßig

    above/below average — über-/unterdurchschnittlich

    the average man, Mr Average — der Durchschnittsbürger

    3. vt
    1) (= find the average of) den Durchschnitt ermitteln von
    2) (= do etc on average) auf einen Schnitt von... kommen

    we averaged 80 km/h — wir kamen auf einen Schnitt von 80 km/h, wir sind durchschnittlich 80 km/h gefahren

    the factory averages 500 cars a week — die Fabrik produziert durchschnittlich or im (Durch)schnitt 500 Autos pro Woche

    3)

    (= average out at) sales are averaging 10,000 copies per day — der Absatz beläuft sich auf or beträgt durchschnittlich or im (Durch)schnitt 10.000 Exemplare pro Tag

    * * *
    average [ˈævərıdʒ; ˈævrıdʒ]
    A s
    1. Durchschnitt m, besonders MATH Mittelwert m:
    he smokes an average of 20 cigarettes a day er raucht durchschnittlich 20 Zigaretten am Tag;
    on (an oder the) average im Durchschnitt, durchschnittlich, im Schnitt;
    be above average über dem Durchschnitt liegen, überdurchschnittlich sein;
    it is above average in weight es ist überdurchschnittlich schwer;
    be below average unter dem Durchschnitt liegen, unterdurchschnittlich sein; → academic.ru/42004/law">law1 11 a
    2. JUR, SCHIFF Havarie f, Seeschaden m:
    free from average frei von Havarie, nicht gegen Havarie versichert;
    ship under average havariertes Schiff;
    adjust ( oder make up, settle) the average die Dispache aufmachen;
    make average havarieren;
    average adjuster Dispacheur m;
    average bond Havarieschein m;
    average statement Dispache f, (Aufmachung f der) Schadensberechnung f; → general average, particular average, petty average
    B adj (adv averagely) durchschnittlich (auch mittelmäßig), Durchschnitts…:
    average earnings (price, speed, etc);
    the average Englishman der Durchschnittsengländer;
    higher than average überdurchschnittlich;
    be only average nur Durchschnitt sein;
    averagely intelligent durchschnittlich intelligent
    C v/t
    1. auch average out den Durchschnitt schätzen (at auf akk) oder ermitteln oder nehmen von (od gen)
    2. etwas anteil(s)mäßig aufteilen ( among unter dat)
    3. durchschnittlich betragen oder ausmachen oder haben oder leisten oder erreichen etc:
    average sixty miles an hour eine Durchschnittsgeschwindigkeit von 60 Meilen pro Stunde fahren oder erreichen;
    average more than im Durchschnitt über (dat) liegen
    D v/i average out sich einpendeln (at bei):
    av. abk
    1. US avenue
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) Durchschnitt, der

    on [the or an] average — im Durchschnitt; durchschnittlich; im Schnitt (ugs.)

    above/below average — über/unter dem Durchschnitt

    law of averages — Wahrscheinlichkeitsgesetz, das

    2) (arithmetic mean) Mittelwert, der
    2. adjective
    2) (mediocre) durchschnittlich; mittelmäßig
    3. transitive verb
    1) (find the average of) den Durchschnitt ermitteln von
    2) (amount on average to) durchschnittlich betragen
    3) (do on average) einen Durchschnitt von... erreichen

    the train averaged 90 m.p.h. — der Zug fuhr im Durchschnitt mit 144 Kilometern pro Stunde

    4. intransitive verb
    * * *
    adj.
    Durchschnitts- präfix
    durchschnittlich adj. n.
    Durchschnitt m. (over) v.
    Mittelwert bilden (aus) ausdr.

    English-german dictionary > average

  • 12 average

    average ['ævərɪdʒ]
    1 noun
    (a) (standard amount, quality) moyenne f;
    ∎ an average of four to six years une moyenne de quatre à six ans;
    ∎ above/below average au-dessus/au-dessous de la moyenne;
    ∎ on (an) average en moyenne;
    ∎ we travelled an average of 100 miles a day nous avons fait une moyenne de 100 miles par jour ou 100 miles par jour en moyenne;
    ∎ to spend an average of £85 per week dépenser en moyenne 85 livres par semaine;
    ∎ the law of averages la loi de la probabilité
    (b) Mathematics moyenne f;
    ∎ to work out the average établir la moyenne;
    ∎ that gives an average of six ça fait une moyenne de six
    (d) Stock Exchange indice m
    moyen;
    ∎ of average intelligence/size d'intelligence/de taille moyenne;
    ∎ ask the average man in the street demandez à l'homme de la rue;
    ∎ of average height de taille moyenne;
    ∎ the food is better than average la nourriture est au-dessus de la moyenne;
    ∎ the film was just average le film était moyen;
    ∎ in an average week dans une semaine ordinaire;
    ∎ how was your day? - average comment s'est passée ta journée? - moyen;
    ∎ familiar a very average singer un chanteur de qualité très moyenne
    (a) Mathematics établir ou faire la moyenne de
    (b) (perform typical number of) atteindre la moyenne de;
    ∎ household spending averages £80 per week les dépenses des ménages sont de ou atteignent les 80 livres par semaine en moyenne;
    ∎ the factory averages ten machines a day l'usine produit en moyenne dix machines par jour;
    ∎ we average two letters a day nous recevons en moyenne deux lettres par jour;
    ∎ he averaged 100 km/h il a fait du 100 km/h de moyenne
    (c) (divide up) partager;
    ∎ the company averages the profits among the staff la firme distribue ou répartit les bénéfices entre le personnel
    ►► Insurance average adjuster dispacheur m, expert-répartiteur m;
    Insurance average adjustment dispache f;
    Finance average cost coût m moyen;
    Finance average due date échéance f moyenne;
    Finance average revenue produit m moyen;
    American Finance average tax rate taux m d'imposition effectif ou moyen;
    Finance average yield rendement m moyen
    ∎ Finance profits average out at 10 percent les bénéfices s'élèvent en moyenne à 10 pour cent;
    ∎ factory production averages out at a hundred and twenty cars a day l'usine produit en moyenne cent vingt voitures par jour;
    ∎ what does it average out at? ça fait combien en moyenne?
    faire la moyenne de

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > average

  • 13 average

    I 1. ['ævərɪdʒ]
    nome media f.

    on (the) average — in media, mediamente

    above, below (the) average — sopra, sotto la media

    Mr Average — il cittadino medio; (in Italy) il signor Rossi

    2.
    aggettivo medio
    II ['ævərɪdʒ]
    verbo transitivo fare in media [distance, quantity, hours]

    we averaged 95 kph — abbiamo tenuto una media di 95 km/h

    * * *
    ['ævəri‹] 1. noun
    (the result of adding several amounts together and dividing the total by the number of amounts: The average of 3, 7, 9 and 13 is 8 (= 32:4).) media
    2. adjective
    1) (obtained by finding the average of amounts etc: average price; the average temperature for the week.) medio
    2) (ordinary; not exceptional: The average person is not wealthy; His work is average.) medio
    3. verb
    (to form an average: His expenses averaged (out at) 15 dollars a day.) essere/ammontare in media
    * * *
    I 1. ['ævərɪdʒ]
    nome media f.

    on (the) average — in media, mediamente

    above, below (the) average — sopra, sotto la media

    Mr Average — il cittadino medio; (in Italy) il signor Rossi

    2.
    aggettivo medio
    II ['ævərɪdʒ]
    verbo transitivo fare in media [distance, quantity, hours]

    we averaged 95 kph — abbiamo tenuto una media di 95 km/h

    English-Italian dictionary > average

  • 14 average

    A n gen, Math moyenne f (of de) ; national average moyenne nationale ; on (the) average en moyenne ; above/below (the) average au-dessus de/au-dessous de la moyenne ; at an average of à une moyenne de ; to take an average prendre une moyenne approximative ; to work out an average faire une moyenne ; by the law of averages selon la loi des probabilités ; Mr Average Monsieur Tout-le-Monde.
    B adj gen, Math [amount, cost, earnings, person, rate] moyen/-enne ; on an average day I work seven hours en moyenne, je travaille sept heures par jour ; a book suitable for an average 10-year-old un livre qui convient à un enfant de 10 ans ; a very average writer péj un auteur très moyen or médiocre.
    C vtr faire en moyenne [distance, quantity, time] ; I average seven hours' work a day en moyenne je travaille sept heures par jour ; we averaged 95 km/h on the motorway nous avons fait une moyenne de 95 km/h sur l'autoroute.
    ■ average out: their pay averages out at about £10 an hour ils gagnent en moyenne 10 livres sterling de l'heure ; their working day averages out at seven hours leur journée de travail fait en moyenne sept heures ;
    ▶ average out [sth], average [sth] out faire la moyenne de ; we averaged out the bill at £10 each nous avons partagé la note et avons payé 10 livres sterling chacun.

    Big English-French dictionary > average

  • 15 average

    'ævəri‹ 1. noun
    (the result of adding several amounts together and dividing the total by the number of amounts: The average of 3, 7, 9 and 13 is 8 (= 32:4).) gjennomsnitt
    2. adjective
    1) (obtained by finding the average of amounts etc: average price; the average temperature for the week.) gjennomsnittlig, gjennomsnitts-
    2) (ordinary; not exceptional: The average person is not wealthy; His work is average.) gjennomsnitts-, middels
    3. verb
    (to form an average: His expenses averaged (out at) 15 dollars a day.) utgjøre i gjennomsnitt
    gjennomsnitt
    --------
    gjennomsnittlig
    I
    subst. \/ˈæv(ə)rɪdʒ\/
    1) (gjennom)snitt, middelverdi, middeltall
    2) (jus, sjøfart) havari, sjøskade
    3) (handel, sjøfart) avgift (på skip, last)
    4) (jus, sjøfart) dispasje
    at an average of med et gjennomsnitt på
    general\/particular average (jus, sjøfart) totalt havari
    the law of averages sannsynlighetsteorien
    on an\/the average gjennomsnittlig, i gjennomsnitt
    sunshine average ( meteorologi) gjennomsnittlig antall soltimer
    II
    verb \/ˈæv(ə)rɪdʒ\/
    1) beregne middelverdi\/gjennomsnittet av
    2) utgjøre gjennomsnitt
    3) fordele
    4) (jus, sjøfart) dispasjere, gjøre opp dispasjon
    average down ( handel) kjøpe inn til lave priser for å få ned gjennomsnittlige kostnader
    average out jevne seg ut, fordele seg jevnt
    average up ( handel) kjøpe inn til høy pris, i påvente av ytterligere prisstigning
    III
    adj. \/ˈæv(ə)rɪdʒ\/
    1) gjennomsnittlig, gjennomsnitts-, middel-
    2) ( hverdagslig) vanlig, ordinær, middelmådig
    3) (jus, sjøfart) dispasje-

    English-Norwegian dictionary > average

  • 16 average

    average [ˈævərɪdʒ]
    1. noun
    • above/below average au-dessus/en dessous de la moyenne
    • to do an average of 70km/h rouler à une moyenne de 70 km/h
       a. ( = find the average of) faire la moyenne de
       b. ( = reach an average of) atteindre la moyenne de
    * * *
    ['ævərɪdʒ] 1.
    noun moyenne f (of de)

    above/below (the) average — au-dessus de/au-dessous de la moyenne

    2.
    adjective gen, Mathematics moyen/-enne

    on an average day I work seven hours — en moyenne, je travaille sept heures par jour

    3.
    transitive verb faire en moyenne [distance, quantity, time]

    we averaged 95 km/h — nous avons fait une moyenne de 95 km/h

    English-French dictionary > average

  • 17 average

    av·er·age [ʼævərɪʤ] n
    1) ( mean value) Durchschnitt m;
    to have risen by an \average of 4% durchschnittlich um 4% gestiegen sein;
    on \average im Durchschnitt
    2) no pl ( usual standard) Durchschnitt m;
    to be about the \average dem Durchschnitt entsprechen;
    [to be] [well] above/below \average [weit] über/unter dem Durchschnitt [liegen]
    3) math Durchschnitt m, Mittelwert m;
    law of \averages Gesetz nt der Durchschnittsbildung adj
    1) ( arithmetic) durchschnittlich; income, age Durchschnitts-;
    sb on an \average income jd mit einem Durchschnittseinkommen;
    \average rainfall durchschnittliche Niederschlagsmenge
    2) ( typical) durchschnittlich, Durchschnitts-;
    of \average ability mit durchschnittlichen Fähigkeiten;
    the \average man der Durchschnittsbürger;
    \average person Otto Normalverbraucher;
    above/below \average über-/unterdurchschnittlich vt
    to \average sth im Durchschnitt [o durchschnittlich] etw betragen;
    to \average 70 hours a week durchschnittlich 70 Stunden pro Woche arbeiten;
    to \average £12,000 per year durchschnittlich 12.000 Pfund im Jahr verdienen
    to \average sth von etw dat den Durchschnitt ermitteln

    English-German students dictionary > average

  • 18 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 19 principle

    noun
    1) Prinzip, das

    on the principle that... — nach dem Grundsatz, dass...

    be based on the principle that... — auf dem Grundsatz basieren, dass...

    basic principle — Grundprinzip, das

    go back to first principles — zu den Grundlagen zurückgehen

    in principle — im Prinzip

    it's the principle [of the thing] — es geht [dabei] ums Prinzip

    a man of high principle or strong principles — ein Mann von od. mit hohen Prinzipien

    do something on principle or as a matter of principle — etwas prinzipiell od. aus Prinzip tun

    2) (Phys.) Lehrsatz, der
    * * *
    ['prinsəpəl]
    1) (a general truth, rule or law: the principle of gravity.) das Gesetz
    2) (the theory by which a machine etc works: the principle of the jet engine.) die Grundregel
    •
    - academic.ru/117990/principles">principles
    - in principle
    - on principle
    * * *
    prin·ci·ple
    [ˈprɪn(t)səpl̩]
    n
    1. (basic concept) Prinzip nt
    basic [or guiding] \principle Grundprinzip nt, Leitsatz m
    on Socialist \principles nach sozialistischen Prinzipien
    2. (fundamental) Grundlage f
    the elementary \principles of physics die Grundgesetze pl der Physik
    to function [or operate] on a \principle nach einem Prinzip funktionieren
    \principle of conservation of energy Energieerhaltungssatz m
    \principle of least restraint Prinzip nt des kleinsten Zwanges
    3. ( approv: moral code) Prinzip nt, Grundsatz m
    it's the \principle of the thing es geht [dabei] ums Prinzip
    cheating is against my \principles Betrug verstößt gegen meine Prinzipien
    to be a man of \principle ein Mann mit Prinzipien [o Grundsätzen] sein
    to stick to one's \principles an seinen Prinzipien festhalten
    4. CHEM Grundbestandteil m
    5.
    ▶ in \principle im Prinzip
    ▶ on [or as a matter of] \principle aus Prinzip
    * * *
    ['prInsɪpl]
    n
    1) Prinzip nt

    to go back to first principles — zu den Grundlagen zurückgehen

    2) (= moral precept) Prinzip nt, Grundsatz m; (no pl = integrity) Prinzipien pl, Grundsätze pl

    in/on principle — im/aus Prinzip, prinzipiell

    a man of principle(s) — ein Mensch mit or von Prinzipien or Grundsätzen

    it's a matter of principle, it's the principle of the thing — es geht dabei ums Prinzip

    3) (= basic element) Element nt
    * * *
    principle [ˈprınsəpl] s
    1. Prinzip n, Grundsatz m:
    a man of principle ein Mann mit Prinzipien oder Grundsätzen;
    principle of efficiency Leistungsprinzip
    2. (Grund-)Prinzip n, (-)Regel f, Leitsatz m:
    principle of law Rechtsgrundsatz m;
    in principle im Prinzip, prinzipiell;
    on principle aus Prinzip, prinzipiell, grundsätzlich;
    on the principle that … nach dem Grundsatz, dass …
    3. Grundwahrheit f, -begriff m, -lehre f, Prinzip n:
    4. wissenschaftlich: Prinzip n, (Natur)Gesetz n, Satz m:
    principle of averages Mittelwertsatz;
    principle of least action Prinzip der geringsten Wirkung;
    principle of relativity Relativitätstheorie f, -lehre f (Einsteins);
    principle of sums Summensatz; → causality 1
    5. Grund(lage) m(f), Quelle f, Ursprung m, treibende Kraft
    6. Grundzug m, Charakteristikum n
    7. CHEM Grundbestandteil m
    prin. abk
    1. principal (principally)
    * * *
    noun
    1) Prinzip, das

    on the principle that... — nach dem Grundsatz, dass...

    be based on the principle that... — auf dem Grundsatz basieren, dass...

    basic principle — Grundprinzip, das

    it's the principle [of the thing] — es geht [dabei] ums Prinzip

    a man of high principle or strong principles — ein Mann von od. mit hohen Prinzipien

    do something on principle or as a matter of principle — etwas prinzipiell od. aus Prinzip tun

    2) (Phys.) Lehrsatz, der
    * * *
    n.
    Grundsatz m.
    Prinzip -ien n.
    Ursache -n f.

    English-german dictionary > principle

  • 20 principle

    ['prinsəpəl]
    1) (a general truth, rule or law: the principle of gravity.) načelo
    2) (the theory by which a machine etc works: the principle of the jet engine.) osnova
    •
    - in principle
    - on principle
    * * *
    [prínsipl]
    noun
    princip, načelo, vodilo; osnova, podlaga, temelj; chemistry bistvena sestavina
    on principle — načelno, iz principa
    in principle — v načelu, po pravilu

    English-Slovenian dictionary > principle

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См. также в других словарях:

  • (the) law of averages — the law of averages UK US noun the principle that if something with more than one possible result happens enough times, the result that you want is certain to happen at some time Thesaurus: averagessynonym cardinal numbershyponym * * * the ˌlaw… …   Useful english dictionary

  • the law of averages — the idea or principle that something which can produce different results will produce those results in a regular or predictable way over a period of time I can t believe that team has lost 12 games in a row. The law of averages says that they sh …   Useful english dictionary

  • (the) law of averages — the probability that you will get one result about the same number of times as another if you do something often enough. By the law of averages we can t give a good performance every night of the tour …   New idioms dictionary

  • the law of averages — UK / US noun the principle that if something with more than one possible result happens enough times, the result that you want is certain to happen at some time …   English dictionary

  • Law of averages — The law of averages is a lay term used to express a belief that outcomes of a random event shall even out within a small sample.As invoked in everyday life, the law usually reflects bad statistics or wishful thinking rather than any mathematical… …   Wikipedia

  • law of averages — noun a) The statistical tendency toward a fixed proportion in the results when an experiment is repeated a large number of times; the law of large numbers. ... as they will not have sufficient distribution of risk to permit the law of averages to …   Wiktionary

  • law of averages — {n. phr.} The idea that you can t win all the time or lose all the time. * /The Celtics have won 10 games in a row but the law of averages will catch up with them soon./ …   Dictionary of American idioms

  • law of averages — {n. phr.} The idea that you can t win all the time or lose all the time. * /The Celtics have won 10 games in a row but the law of averages will catch up with them soon./ …   Dictionary of American idioms

  • law\ of\ averages — n. phr. the idea that you can t win all the time or lose all the time. The Celtics have won 10 games in a row but the law of averages will catch up with them soon …   Словарь американских идиом

  • law of averages, the — noun the principle that if something with more than one possible result happens enough times, the result you want is certain to happen at some time …   Usage of the words and phrases in modern English

  • law of averages — ► NOUN ▪ the supposed principle that future events are likely to turn out so that they balance any past deviation from a presumed average …   English terms dictionary

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